The Southern Chad Basin

This is poorly exposed in Nigeria and merges with the Upper Benue Trough. A subsurface basement high, the Zambuk Ridge, separates the Southern Chad Basin from the Upper Benue. The Bima sandstone is the oldest sedimentary deposit in the Chad Basin. A Middle Cretaceous shale-limestone succession, subdivided into the Gongola Formation at the base and the Fika Shale at the top, constitutes the marine and transitional deposits which extend from the Upper Benue into the Southern Chad Basin. The Tertiary Chad Formation is very thick.

SE lullemmeden Basin

Marine Late Cretaceous - Palaeocene beds in the SE lullemme- den Basin are well exposed into the Sokoto region, in Niger and extending into Mali. Two cycles of dep- osition constitute the Late Cretaceous - Palaeocene marine sequence in SE lullemmeden Basin. The Rima cycle of Late Cretaceous age comprises the Taloka Formation (50m of brown, laminated, paral- lel, bedded, carbonaceous, fine-grained sandstone, siltstones and mudstones), overlain by the Dukamaje Formation (10m of basal bone bed, gyp- siferous, fissile, gray lower and upper shales and middle marl). The Palaeocene Sokoto cycle com- prises the Wurno Formation (20m of soft, tabular mudstone, muddy siltstones, and fine-grained sandstones at the base which grades upward into the Dange shale (10m thick), and the Kalambaina Formation (12m of nodular, marly limestone which becomes shaly at the top). The Gwandu Formation above is a ferruginious sandstone of continental origin.

Read more: http://www.onlinenigeria.com/geology/?blurb=505#ixzz4LSajUv00

Earth is losing its Atmosphere --"Weakness Found in Our Magnetic Field"

Earth’s atmosphere is leaking into space at the impressive rate of 90 tonnes (99 tons) per day. The leakage has been investigated by the ESA’s Cluster fleet for over 15 years, but many unknowns still remain. Cluster has observed how the solar wind interacts with Earth’s magnetic field, and found that there was a continuous wind of cold plasma escaping our atmosphere at about 1 kilogram (2.2 pounds) per second. But how the plasma ends up in the magnetosphere is not at all clear. “There are a few different aspects to this,” said Philippe Escoubet, ESA's Project Scientist for the Cluster mission, in a statement. “We need to know the processes involved in transporting it there, how these processes depend on the dynamic solar wind and the conditions of the magnetosphere, and where plasma is coming from in the first place – does it originate in the ionosphere, the plasmasphere, or somewhere else?” Although the magnetosphere protects us from the charged particles in the solar winds, it is not without weak spots. At the poles the field lines are open (just like a bar magnet) and protons and electrons from the Sun can penetrate and interact with the atmosphere, forming the northern and southern lights. The process is not a one-way street. Charged particles from Earth’s atmosphere can also escape the atmosphere in the same locations. Since the 1990s scientists have known of sporadic columns of plasma, known as plumes, reaching the edges of the magnetosphere. But thanks to Cluster, space scientists have confirmed that the there is a constant outflow. The latest analysis suggests a subtle interaction between our planet's magnetosphere and the interplanetary magnetic field (IMF). The IMF orientation depends on the rotation of the Sun, and scientists have seen that plumes are formed when the two fields are opposite while leaking outflows happen when the IMF and the Earth’s magnetic field point in the same direction. "While there is still much to learn, we've been able tomake great progress here," said Arnaud Masson, ESA's Deputy Project Scientist for the Cluster mission. "These recent studies have managed to successfully link together multiple phenomena to paint a better picture of Earth's magnetic environment. This research required several years of ongoing observation, something we could only get with Cluster." Understanding our own atmosphere and how it interacts with the solar wind will help us understand better the other objects in the Solar System, as well as suggesting what to look for in our search for a habitable exoplanet. Written by Alfredo Carpineti provided by ESA's European Space Operations Centre (ESOC)

At http://www.geologyin.com/2016/07/earth-is-losing-its-atmosphere-weakness.html

Earth is losing its Atmosphere --"Weakness Found in Our Magnetic Field"

Earth’s atmosphere is leaking into space at the impressive rate of 90 tonnes (99 tons) per day. The leakage has been investigated by the ESA’s Cluster fleet for over 15 years, but many unknowns still remain. Cluster has observed how the solar wind interacts with Earth’s magnetic field, and found that there was a continuous wind of cold plasma escaping our atmosphere at about 1 kilogram (2.2 pounds) per second. But how the plasma ends up in the magnetosphere is not at all clear. “There are a few different aspects to this,” said Philippe Escoubet, ESA's Project Scientist for the Cluster mission, in a statement. “We need to know the processes involved in transporting it there, how these processes depend on the dynamic solar wind and the conditions of the magnetosphere, and where plasma is coming from in the first place – does it originate in the ionosphere, the plasmasphere, or somewhere else?” Although the magnetosphere protects us from the charged particles in the solar winds, it is not without weak spots. At the poles the field lines are open (just like a bar magnet) and protons and electrons from the Sun can penetrate and interact with the atmosphere, forming the northern and southern lights. The process is not a one-way street. Charged particles from Earth’s atmosphere can also escape the atmosphere in the same locations. Since the 1990s scientists have known of sporadic columns of plasma, known as plumes, reaching the edges of the magnetosphere. But thanks to Cluster, space scientists have confirmed that the there is a constant outflow. The latest analysis suggests a subtle interaction between our planet's magnetosphere and the interplanetary magnetic field (IMF). The IMF orientation depends on the rotation of the Sun, and scientists have seen that plumes are formed when the two fields are opposite while leaking outflows happen when the IMF and the Earth’s magnetic field point in the same direction. "While there is still much to learn, we've been able tomake great progress here," said Arnaud Masson, ESA's Deputy Project Scientist for the Cluster mission. "These recent studies have managed to successfully link together multiple phenomena to paint a better picture of Earth's magnetic environment. This research required several years of ongoing observation, something we could only get with Cluster." Understanding our own atmosphere and how it interacts with the solar wind will help us understand better the other objects in the Solar System, as well as suggesting what to look for in our search for a habitable exoplanet. Written by Alfredo Carpineti provided by ESA's European Space Operations Centre (ESOC)

At http://www.geologyin.com/2016/07/earth-is-losing-its-atmosphere-weakness.html

Greenland Is Still Melting Away

A new paper just published by scientists in Geophysical Research Letters presents results of their investigation into the ice sheet covering Greenland. They found that over the four-year period from Jan. 1, 2011 to Dec. 31, 2014 Greenland lost over a trillion tons of ice. Let me repeat that: More than a trillion tons of ice melted away from Greenland. These results, using the Cryosat-2 satellite, actually matches pretty well with other measurements made using different methods; for example, using data from the GRACE satellitesscientists found Greenland loses ice at a rate of about 287 billion tons per year. These numbers are staggering. To give you a sense of scale: A trillion tons of ice would make a cube over 10 kilometers (six miles) on a side. That’s taller than Mt. Everest, and would have about three times that mountain’s volume. And that much ice disappeared from Greenland in just four years. But no, really, it didn’t disappear. It had to go somewhere. And where it went was into the ocean, adding water to it. Distributed over the Earth, that means sea level rose about 2.5 mm over those four years. That rate of sea level rise from Greenland ice melting was twice as rapid as the average rate from 1992-2011. I’ll note that 2012 was unusual across the Arctic, with far more warming than usual, less snow cover than usual, huge sea ice losses, and higher loss of Greenland land ice as well. But even with that, the trend is, dare I say, alarming. Mind you, that’s just from Greenland, and doesn’t include melting from Antarctica, which is occurring at about half the rate of Greenland (the Arctic is more prone to warming and melting that the Antarctic). Every year, these two land masses lose about 400 billion tons of ice combined, draining it into the ocean, causing sea level rise. This fresh, cold water also disrupts critical current flow that transports heat from the Equator to the poles, and cold water back again. This may also affect the jet stream, which in turn gets weaker, allowing frigid Arctic air down to lower latitudes in the winter. Common in this situation is the formation of stalled “blocking patterns” in summer that prevent storm systems from moving easily, bringing droughts in some areas and floods in others. In 2013, a torrential downpour in my home of Boulderoccurred because of one of these blocking patterns, and the results were horrendous—some places got nearly half a meter of rainfall in a few days. That same year, Alaska had a terrible heat wave, again due to these blocking patterns. The evidence that global warming is behind all this is so overwhelming is difficult to overstate. But I’ll note that the likely Republican nominee for President calls global warming a hoax, and his Vice Presidential pick called it a myth. I’ll also note that theDemocratic likely nominee not only acknowledges the reality of global warming, but also has a plan in place to deal with it. I could wish for something more aggressive from her, but given the infuriatingly sorry state of the GOP attitudes about science and reality, this is a case of taking what you can get.

 At http://www.slate.com/blogs/bad_astronomy/2016/07/18/greenland_lost_a_trillion_to ns_of_ice_in_four_years.html 

The pains and strains of a continental breakup

 Every now and then in Earth's history, a pair of continents draws close enough to form one. There comes a time, however, when they must inevitably part ways. Now scientists at Australia's EarthByte research group, in collaboration with the German Research Centre for Geosciences, have revealed the underlying mechanics of a continental breakup when this time arrives in a supercontinent's life cycle. With the help of seismic data and sophisticated computer simulations, the team from the University of Sydney and the University of Potsdam uncovered a distinct two-phase separation process: at first, continents gradually inch apart as a hot, jagged rift is etched into the landscape. Then, after many millions of years of strained, relentless pulling of the Earth's crust, the continents lurch away from each other, beginning their steady march towards separate sides of the globe as a new ocean forms between them. This work highlights a phenomenon that is otherwise difficult to explain within the conventional framework of plate tectonics. The findings are published today in the journal Nature. The research comes just over a month after a paper co-authored by researchers fromthe EarthByteGroup -- which explained why there are just a few large tectonic plates and many tiny plates -- was highlighted on the cover of Nature. "Plates tend to shift around quite slowly because they're sitting on an otherwise very viscous mantle," said co-author at the University of Sydney's School of Geosciences, Professor Dietmar Müller, about the latest paper. "However, throughout Earth's history, there have been plenty of instances where plates have suddenly sped up during supercontinent breakup. This has puzzled us for decades, as this behaviour can't easily be reconciled with our understanding of what drives plate motion." A simple analogy can help explain why plates are suddenly able to reach these high speeds, Professor Müller said: "Imagine you're pulling apart a thick piece of dough. At first, separating it requires a lot of effort because the dough resists your pulling and stretches slowly between your hands. "If you're persistent, you'll eventually reach a point where the dough becomes thin enough to separate quite easily and quickly. The same principle applies to rifting continents once the connection between them has been thinned sufficiently." The study involved a laborious task of analysing thousands of kilometres of seismic profiles in order to pinpoint areas where the continents had been vigorously stretched during their detachment. The researchers then designed computer simulations that independently verified this two-phase breakup. Lead author Dr Sascha Brune, from the University of Potsdam, said the split did not tend to end amicably: "This breakup process leads to margin segmentation, where rapid subsidence, high heat flow, and enhanced volcanism characterise the outer margin." The result: a full-margin rupture that sends the outer rims of the continents plunging into the sea. "The Earth's submerged continental shelves play an indelible role in biogeochemical cycles such as carbon burial and nutrient cycling," addedDrBrune. "They are also favourable environments for cultivating and preserving the energy resources upon which our modern society still relies, for instance natural gas." This work comprises a core finding of the Australian Research Council and industry-funded Basin Genenis Hub, which Professor Müller heads at the University of Sydney. The five-year project aims to improve our understanding of the evolution of sedimentary basins and continental margins by connecting big data analysis and high-performance computing in an open-innovation framework.

 More at https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/07/160718133003.htm 

North Africa Could Help Forge New Strategy For Gas In Sub-Saharan Africa

Investment in the exploration and production of oil and gas has dropped precipitously since oil prices began to fall in 2014, and North Africa could be providing the near-term strategy for sub-Saharan Africa. Upstream oil and gas operations identify deposits, drill wells and recover raw materials from underground. The upstream sector of the oil and gas industry includes all the steps involved from preliminary exploration through extraction. North Africa is a microcosm of that global change. Upstream investment is expected to be down more than $30 billion for 2016 and 2017 combined. Yet ongoing projects, recent discoveries and investment in gas projects will push the upstream investment in North Africa to record levels by 2019. Understanding gas in North Africa Gas has always been valuable to North African economies, but it entered a new phase of recognition in 2015 when spending on gas projects surpassed spending on oil projects for the first time. The capital expenditure for gas projects in 2019 is expected to be more than double that of oil and will push production of gas and natural gas liquids (NGLs) to more than 3.4 million barrels a day by 2024, according to global energy consultancy Wood Mackenzie. The growth in spending is being fueled (no pun intended) by a growing need to address declining supply. Multi billion-dollar developments in Egypt, such as Eni’s Zohr and British Petroleum’s West Nile Delta projects, account for over $23 billion, or 30 percent of total capital expenditure in Middle East North Africa over the next five years. The corresponding bump in gas production is less robust at 7 percent, versus the 24 percent increase in capex spend. The shift to gas is not a short-term reaction to low oil prices. The greater volumes of gas discovered versus oil in the last decade explains the story. Since 2006, oil discoveries have amounted to a new 3.7 billion barrels of oil, compared to 5.6 billion (or 32 trillion cubic feet) of gas. This does not include the 4 billion barrel Zohr discovery that clearly changes the energy discussion in region. The lesson for gas in sub-Saharan Africa Capex spend Sub-Saharan Africa does not need a lesson on cutting capital expenditure. Analysts suggest that the capex cut through 2019 is between 35 percent and 45 percent. Angola and Nigeria will likely see more than 50 percent in capex cuts. Many projects are not commercial in this price environment. Some projects accordingly have been redesigned, deferred or downgraded. The greatest cuts will come with oil deepwater projects. Consider the four biggest combined cuts in Angola and Nigeria. The Block 31 SE project and the Block 16 Chissonga project in Angola will account for a near 20 billion cut in capex spend through 2020 while the Bosi project and the Etan &Zabazaba in project Angola will account for a near 21 billion cut in capex

spend. The four projects combined are bigger than the next eight biggest cuts, of which only one is not in Nigeria or Angola. Looking to gas Major explorations have led to huge discoveries of offshore gas in Mozambique and Tanzania with investors looking to the lucrative prospects in the 2020s. Current prices rightfully concern investors in the short term as gas projects in Mozambique and Tanzania require significant capital investment. Still the resources are imperative to the development plan of both countries and accordingly will press on in the near term. Italian oil and gas company Eni is expected to spend more than $15 billion to monetize gas in Mozambique in the near term. The greater question for gas is how it will play out in oil countries, specifically Nigeria. Nigeria is home to massive gas reserves. Its reserve profile should make it competitive with Algeria. Yet capital investment and public focus need an energy injection from the Nigerian government. The infrastructure is conspicuously inadequate, not simply for exploration and transmission but also for converting gas to power generation. Prices also remain an issue which makes commercialization a big question. The Power Holding Company of Nigeria (PHCN), as a major off-taker of gas in the country, struggled to pay for gas at market prices in the past few years. Little data suggest this will change for independent off-takers. Changing perspective Natural gas is most abundant in Nigeria, Mozambique and Tanzania with significant resources in other countries, including Angola and Cameroon. It is acceptable and affordable as a standalone energy source. But key policy and economic enablers must be implemented to change the outlook in subSaharan Africa. Let North Africa be an example of how gas can be lucrative when operators can see opportunity and make it a focus. The serendipitous discoveries of gas in Nigeria are bewildering to many investors. Discovering gas while searching for oil is like finding gold outside your door when you need cash. The question is how you turn the gold into cash. That part is not as serendipitous and requires a little effort.

 by Kurt Davis Jr, AFKInsider
At https://furtherafrica.com/2016/08/11/north-africa-could-help-forge-newstrategy-for-gas-in-sub-saharan-africa/

North Africa Could Help Forge New Strategy For Gas In Sub-Saharan Africa

Investment in the exploration and production of oil and gas has dropped precipitously since oil prices began to fall in 2014, and North Africa could be providing the near-term strategy for sub-Saharan Africa. Upstream oil and gas operations identify deposits, drill wells and recover raw materials from underground. The upstream sector of the oil and gas industry includes all the steps involved from preliminary exploration through extraction. North Africa is a microcosm of that global change. Upstream investment is expected to be down more than $30 billion for 2016 and 2017 combined. Yet ongoing projects, recent discoveries and investment in gas projects will push the upstream investment in North Africa to record levels by 2019. Understanding gas in North Africa Gas has always been valuable to North African economies, but it entered a new phase of recognition in 2015 when spending on gas projects surpassed spending on oil projects for the first time. The capital expenditure for gas projects in 2019 is expected to be more than double that of oil and will push production of gas and natural gas liquids (NGLs) to more than 3.4 million barrels a day by 2024, according to global energy consultancy Wood Mackenzie. The growth in spending is being fueled (no pun intended) by a growing need to address declining supply. Multi billion-dollar developments in Egypt, such as Eni’s Zohr and British Petroleum’s West Nile Delta projects, account for over $23 billion, or 30 percent of total capital expenditure in Middle East North Africa over the next five years. The corresponding bump in gas production is less robust at 7 percent, versus the 24 percent increase in capex spend. The shift to gas is not a short-term reaction to low oil prices. The greater volumes of gas discovered versus oil in the last decade explains the story. Since 2006, oil discoveries have amounted to a new 3.7 billion barrels of oil, compared to 5.6 billion (or 32 trillion cubic feet) of gas. This does not include the 4 billion barrel Zohr discovery that clearly changes the energy discussion in region. The lesson for gas in sub-Saharan Africa Capex spend Sub-Saharan Africa does not need a lesson on cutting capital expenditure. Analysts suggest that the capex cut through 2019 is between 35 percent and 45 percent. Angola and Nigeria will likely see more than 50 percent in capex cuts. Many projects are not commercial in this price environment. Some projects accordingly have been redesigned, deferred or downgraded. The greatest cuts will come with oil deepwater projects. Consider the four biggest combined cuts in Angola and Nigeria. The Block 31 SE project and the Block 16 Chissonga project in Angola will account for a near 20 billion cut in capex spend through 2020 while the Bosi project and the Etan &Zabazaba in project Angola will account for a near 21 billion cut in capex

spend. The four projects combined are bigger than the next eight biggest cuts, of which only one is not in Nigeria or Angola. Looking to gas Major explorations have led to huge discoveries of offshore gas in Mozambique and Tanzania with investors looking to the lucrative prospects in the 2020s. Current prices rightfully concern investors in the short term as gas projects in Mozambique and Tanzania require significant capital investment. Still the resources are imperative to the development plan of both countries and accordingly will press on in the near term. Italian oil and gas company Eni is expected to spend more than $15 billion to monetize gas in Mozambique in the near term. The greater question for gas is how it will play out in oil countries, specifically Nigeria. Nigeria is home to massive gas reserves. Its reserve profile should make it competitive with Algeria. Yet capital investment and public focus need an energy injection from the Nigerian government. The infrastructure is conspicuously inadequate, not simply for exploration and transmission but also for converting gas to power generation. Prices also remain an issue which makes commercialization a big question. The Power Holding Company of Nigeria (PHCN), as a major off-taker of gas in the country, struggled to pay for gas at market prices in the past few years. Little data suggest this will change for independent off-takers. Changing perspective Natural gas is most abundant in Nigeria, Mozambique and Tanzania with significant resources in other countries, including Angola and Cameroon. It is acceptable and affordable as a standalone energy source. But key policy and economic enablers must be implemented to change the outlook in subSaharan Africa. Let North Africa be an example of how gas can be lucrative when operators can see opportunity and make it a focus. The serendipitous discoveries of gas in Nigeria are bewildering to many investors. Discovering gas while searching for oil is like finding gold outside your door when you need cash. The question is how you turn the gold into cash. That part is not as serendipitous and requires a little effort.

 by Kurt Davis Jr, AFKInsider
At https://furtherafrica.com/2016/08/11/north-africa-could-help-forge-newstrategy-for-gas-in-sub-saharan-africa/

North Africa Could Help Forge New Strategy For Gas In Sub-Saharan Africa

Investment in the exploration and production of oil and gas has dropped precipitously since oil prices began to fall in 2014, and North Africa could be providing the near-term strategy for sub-Saharan Africa. Upstream oil and gas operations identify deposits, drill wells and recover raw materials from underground. The upstream sector of the oil and gas industry includes all the steps involved from preliminary exploration through extraction. North Africa is a microcosm of that global change. Upstream investment is expected to be down more than $30 billion for 2016 and 2017 combined. Yet ongoing projects, recent discoveries and investment in gas projects will push the upstream investment in North Africa to record levels by 2019. Understanding gas in North Africa Gas has always been valuable to North African economies, but it entered a new phase of recognition in 2015 when spending on gas projects surpassed spending on oil projects for the first time. The capital expenditure for gas projects in 2019 is expected to be more than double that of oil and will push production of gas and natural gas liquids (NGLs) to more than 3.4 million barrels a day by 2024, according to global energy consultancy Wood Mackenzie. The growth in spending is being fueled (no pun intended) by a growing need to address declining supply. Multi billion-dollar developments in Egypt, such as Eni’s Zohr and British Petroleum’s West Nile Delta projects, account for over $23 billion, or 30 percent of total capital expenditure in Middle East North Africa over the next five years. The corresponding bump in gas production is less robust at 7 percent, versus the 24 percent increase in capex spend. The shift to gas is not a short-term reaction to low oil prices. The greater volumes of gas discovered versus oil in the last decade explains the story. Since 2006, oil discoveries have amounted to a new 3.7 billion barrels of oil, compared to 5.6 billion (or 32 trillion cubic feet) of gas. This does not include the 4 billion barrel Zohr discovery that clearly changes the energy discussion in region. The lesson for gas in sub-Saharan Africa Capex spend Sub-Saharan Africa does not need a lesson on cutting capital expenditure. Analysts suggest that the capex cut through 2019 is between 35 percent and 45 percent. Angola and Nigeria will likely see more than 50 percent in capex cuts. Many projects are not commercial in this price environment. Some projects accordingly have been redesigned, deferred or downgraded. The greatest cuts will come with oil deepwater projects. Consider the four biggest combined cuts in Angola and Nigeria. The Block 31 SE project and the Block 16 Chissonga project in Angola will account for a near 20 billion cut in capex spend through 2020 while the Bosi project and the Etan &Zabazaba in project Angola will account for a near 21 billion cut in capex

spend. The four projects combined are bigger than the next eight biggest cuts, of which only one is not in Nigeria or Angola. Looking to gas Major explorations have led to huge discoveries of offshore gas in Mozambique and Tanzania with investors looking to the lucrative prospects in the 2020s. Current prices rightfully concern investors in the short term as gas projects in Mozambique and Tanzania require significant capital investment. Still the resources are imperative to the development plan of both countries and accordingly will press on in the near term. Italian oil and gas company Eni is expected to spend more than $15 billion to monetize gas in Mozambique in the near term. The greater question for gas is how it will play out in oil countries, specifically Nigeria. Nigeria is home to massive gas reserves. Its reserve profile should make it competitive with Algeria. Yet capital investment and public focus need an energy injection from the Nigerian government. The infrastructure is conspicuously inadequate, not simply for exploration and transmission but also for converting gas to power generation. Prices also remain an issue which makes commercialization a big question. The Power Holding Company of Nigeria (PHCN), as a major off-taker of gas in the country, struggled to pay for gas at market prices in the past few years. Little data suggest this will change for independent off-takers. Changing perspective Natural gas is most abundant in Nigeria, Mozambique and Tanzania with significant resources in other countries, including Angola and Cameroon. It is acceptable and affordable as a standalone energy source. But key policy and economic enablers must be implemented to change the outlook in subSaharan Africa. Let North Africa be an example of how gas can be lucrative when operators can see opportunity and make it a focus. The serendipitous discoveries of gas in Nigeria are bewildering to many investors. Discovering gas while searching for oil is like finding gold outside your door when you need cash. The question is how you turn the gold into cash. That part is not as serendipitous and requires a little effort.

 by Kurt Davis Jr, AFKInsider
At https://furtherafrica.com/2016/08/11/north-africa-could-help-forge-newstrategy-for-gas-in-sub-saharan-africa/

North Africa Could Help Forge New Strategy For Gas In Sub-Saharan Africa

Investment in the exploration and production of oil and gas has dropped precipitously since oil prices began to fall in 2014, and North Africa could be providing the near-term strategy for sub-Saharan Africa. Upstream oil and gas operations identify deposits, drill wells and recover raw materials from underground. The upstream sector of the oil and gas industry includes all the steps involved from preliminary exploration through extraction. North Africa is a microcosm of that global change. Upstream investment is expected to be down more than $30 billion for 2016 and 2017 combined. Yet ongoing projects, recent discoveries and investment in gas projects will push the upstream investment in North Africa to record levels by 2019. Understanding gas in North Africa Gas has always been valuable to North African economies, but it entered a new phase of recognition in 2015 when spending on gas projects surpassed spending on oil projects for the first time. The capital expenditure for gas projects in 2019 is expected to be more than double that of oil and will push production of gas and natural gas liquids (NGLs) to more than 3.4 million barrels a day by 2024, according to global energy consultancy Wood Mackenzie. The growth in spending is being fueled (no pun intended) by a growing need to address declining supply. Multi billion-dollar developments in Egypt, such as Eni’s Zohr and British Petroleum’s West Nile Delta projects, account for over $23 billion, or 30 percent of total capital expenditure in Middle East North Africa over the next five years. The corresponding bump in gas production is less robust at 7 percent, versus the 24 percent increase in capex spend. The shift to gas is not a short-term reaction to low oil prices. The greater volumes of gas discovered versus oil in the last decade explains the story. Since 2006, oil discoveries have amounted to a new 3.7 billion barrels of oil, compared to 5.6 billion (or 32 trillion cubic feet) of gas. This does not include the 4 billion barrel Zohr discovery that clearly changes the energy discussion in region. The lesson for gas in sub-Saharan Africa Capex spend Sub-Saharan Africa does not need a lesson on cutting capital expenditure. Analysts suggest that the capex cut through 2019 is between 35 percent and 45 percent. Angola and Nigeria will likely see more than 50 percent in capex cuts. Many projects are not commercial in this price environment. Some projects accordingly have been redesigned, deferred or downgraded. The greatest cuts will come with oil deepwater projects. Consider the four biggest combined cuts in Angola and Nigeria. The Block 31 SE project and the Block 16 Chissonga project in Angola will account for a near 20 billion cut in capex spend through 2020 while the Bosi project and the Etan &Zabazaba in project Angola will account for a near 21 billion cut in capex

spend. The four projects combined are bigger than the next eight biggest cuts, of which only one is not in Nigeria or Angola. Looking to gas Major explorations have led to huge discoveries of offshore gas in Mozambique and Tanzania with investors looking to the lucrative prospects in the 2020s. Current prices rightfully concern investors in the short term as gas projects in Mozambique and Tanzania require significant capital investment. Still the resources are imperative to the development plan of both countries and accordingly will press on in the near term. Italian oil and gas company Eni is expected to spend more than $15 billion to monetize gas in Mozambique in the near term. The greater question for gas is how it will play out in oil countries, specifically Nigeria. Nigeria is home to massive gas reserves. Its reserve profile should make it competitive with Algeria. Yet capital investment and public focus need an energy injection from the Nigerian government. The infrastructure is conspicuously inadequate, not simply for exploration and transmission but also for converting gas to power generation. Prices also remain an issue which makes commercialization a big question. The Power Holding Company of Nigeria (PHCN), as a major off-taker of gas in the country, struggled to pay for gas at market prices in the past few years. Little data suggest this will change for independent off-takers. Changing perspective Natural gas is most abundant in Nigeria, Mozambique and Tanzania with significant resources in other countries, including Angola and Cameroon. It is acceptable and affordable as a standalone energy source. But key policy and economic enablers must be implemented to change the outlook in subSaharan Africa. Let North Africa be an example of how gas can be lucrative when operators can see opportunity and make it a focus. The serendipitous discoveries of gas in Nigeria are bewildering to many investors. Discovering gas while searching for oil is like finding gold outside your door when you need cash. The question is how you turn the gold into cash. That part is not as serendipitous and requires a little effort.

 by Kurt Davis Jr, AFKInsider
At https://furtherafrica.com/2016/08/11/north-africa-could-help-forge-newstrategy-for-gas-in-sub-saharan-africa/

Earth's early atmosphere: Rock salt holds the key to a paradigm shift

A team of international scientists from China, France, Scotland, United States and led by Canadian Professors Nigel Blamey and Uwe Brand of Brock University in southern Ontario made a scientific breakthrough by measuring the oxygen content of Earth's ancient atmosphere. They discovered that gases trapped by halite (rock salt) during crystallization may contain atmospheric gases, among them oxygen. Oxygen is a key component in determining the origin and evolution of higher life forms that ultimately made Earth's land and sea their home. The gases in inclusion of halite represent direct measurements of the ancient atmosphere, and can be used to calculate the dissolved oxygen content of past seawater and lay out the requirements for the evolution of higher life forms in the shallow and deep ocean. This discovery has applications beyond the origin of life, to evaluating salt units as depositories for hazardous waste material, to tracking atmospheric changes in carbon dioxide and methane with climate change, to pinpointing the genesis of economic metal deposits, and application of this important scientific discovery to the search for life on extraterrestrial bodies. The above post is reprinted from materials provided by Geological Society of America.

 At http://www.geologyin.com/2016/07/earths-early-atmosphere-rock-saltholds.html

How revenues from oil and gas in Africa can be made to work for ordinary people

Fabio Scala July 19, 2016
 Critics point out that ordinary people have not benefited from oil and gas exploitation in many African states. Billions of dollars in revenue have had little positive impact on the lives of most people in countries like Angola and Nigeria. Local content policies have been expanding across Africa and are currently being drafted in Uganda, Tanzania, Kenya and Mozambique. In a new book, The Petro-Developmental State in Africa, Jesse Salah Ovadia argues that this needn’t be the case and that a different approach focused on local content is possible. This involves regulations that encourage employment and nurture local companies to increase domestic participation in the industry. I asked him whether his proposed approach could be a game changer for economic development in Africa’s oil producing states. What is the petro-developmental state and why does it matter now? The petro-developmental state is a vision of what sub-Saharan countries can achieve through their oil and gas resources. It is tapping non-renewable resources for structural transformation and improving people’s lives in the long term for an eventual transition to post-carbon economies. In a petro-developmental state, local content policies support infant industries. The approach is anchored in oil and gas due to the state’s leverage with this commodity to regulate local participation. These industries can grow and develop comparative advantage over time in areas of economic activity that have non-oil applications and eventually employ large numbers of people and contribute to building a more robust economy. In fact, it’s a vision of state-led industrialisation and job creation anchored in oil that actually diversifies economies away from oil. The value of local content is just as great as the revenues from oil, while the benefits are much more important for long-term development. Is local content the way forward following the oil price shock? The oil price shock has actually deepened my belief that local content is the key to how petroleum resources can be developmental. Oil prices will always be volatile and have provoked economic crises in Angola and Nigeria. That’s one of many reasons a development strategy cannot be based on use of petroleum revenues alone. Even when prices drop, oil production continues. So the opportunities for development through local content remain because the companies producing the oil still require all of the same goods and services from local suppliers. The benefits are much more consistent and they also reduce the reliance on oil over the long term as local companies expand and diversify from the oil sector into the non-oil economy. What are the possible benefits of local content for communities in areas of oil and gas production? There are a number of different things meant when people talk about local content. In Ghana, Kenya and other new oil states in Africa, local content is often understood to direct benefits to communities. I don’t really see it that way, for me it’s about national development through expanded manufacturing and services sectors. There may be some ways communities can participate in the industry in lowerskilled jobs and supplying basic services and this should be encouraged. But other policies are needed by governments to redistribute the revenues and benefits from petroleum and for companies to obtain their social licence to operate by giving back to the communities they work in. How might Africa’s new oil producers approach local content? There are a variety of factors to consider as Africa’s new oil producers set up their approaches to local content. The days of high oil prices are gone and we have to remember that local content involves a cost to both government and the private sector. Governments should start by evaluating the existing levels of education and skills as well as industrial development. These factors, combined with the amount of oil the country has, how hard it is to extract and how long it will last, are important to consider when determining how to promote local content. Setting unrealistic targets for local content will reduce the benefit. Rather than creating hard targets across all oil service activities, it would be better to try to build comparative advantage in selected areas. It is worth sacrificing some oil revenues in order to maximise local content if additional regulation would increase in-country value creation. I worry though that over time as new producers develop their local content policies, they are bowing to pressure to take a less regulatory and more voluntary approach – something I call “soft local content policies”. This doesn’t work because local content is about national development, not creating shared value or win-win outcomes. What is meant by the dual nature of local content? How can it be reconciled with development objectives? Dual nature is the idea that local content can both benefit local elites and have positive developmental effects. But I think it will be a struggle in Angola and Nigeria as well as newer oil producing countries like Uganda, Tanzania, Kenya and Mozambique to have the positive effects outweigh the negative ones. Angola’s recent appointment of Isabel dos Santos, the president’s daughter, as the head of the state’s oil company has a dual nature. Clearly she’s there to ensure her father’s continued access to a key source of rent and patronage. But paradoxically she’s also there to reform and professionalise the company as it struggles to deal with the low oil price environment. I think she was put there for both of these reasons. This demonstrates the dual nature of Angola’s attempt to build a developmental state. Angola’s top-down approach requires significant political reform to be successful because the balance between elite benefit and national development is so one-sided. The lesson for the citizens of Africa’s new oil states is to pay attention, engage on the issues and make their voices heard on questions of petroleum management and oil-backed development. How much of a game changer could local content be for the emergence of a petro-developmental state? I’m often accused of being overly optimistic on this matter, as there is a lack of evidence about the impact of various local content policies. But I believe I’m making a more nuanced argument about a shift in the limits of the possible and a new opportunity for petro-development. Obviously an actually-existing petro-developmental state would be game changing. It’s a vision though that I theorise alongside a less optimistic vision of new forms of elite accumulation and rent-seeking. There is an open question about how successful old and new African oil producers will be in using local content to bring about developmental outcomes in Sub-Saharan Africa.

source: https://furtherafrica.com/2016/07/19/how-revenues-from-oil-and-gas-inafrica-can-be-made-to-work-for-ordinary-people/